What Does Science Tell Us About How Adults Learn?

As educators in higher education, we are witnessing a significant demographic shift in our classrooms. The student body is no longer composed solely of recent high school graduates; instead, we are welcoming a growing number of adult learners returning to upgrade their skills for a rapidly changing world. This evolution presents a vital question: Are our teaching methods designed to meet their unique needs?

​In this article, we—Ng Siew Hiang Sally, Adam John Privitera, and Chen Shen-Hsing Annabel—draw on our work at the Centre for Research and Development in Learning (CRADLE) at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, to address this question. CRADLE leverages knowledge from education, psychology, neuroscience, and technology to develop and test theories that explain learning in all its forms. By turning to the science of adult learning, a key part of our research, we can uncover powerful, evidence-based strategies to create more effective and inclusive learning environments for everyone.

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Countries around the world, including Singapore, are grappling with the question of how to ensure their ageing populations remain productive. With rapid technological change and evolving labour markets, developed nations are increasingly recognising that lifelong learning is no longer a luxury but a necessity. Governments worldwide are actively promoting reskilling and upskilling initiatives, often subsidising programmes to encourage working adults to engage in continued learning.  This shift has fundamentally reshaped the role of universities, prompting many to develop flexible, specialised, and often accelerated programmes designed for adult learners. These programs frequently offer part-time degrees, evening and weekend classes, and hybrid or fully online formats, enabling students to balance their studies with work and family responsibilities.

Why is it important for higher education practitioners to understand the science of adult learning?

To effectively serve this new demographic, practitioners need to adapt their teaching strategies based on findings from the science of adult learning, embracing approaches that acknowledge the differing cognitive abilities and life experience adults bring to the classroom. Thus, findings from the science of learning, including research on cognitive ageing, will be helpful for university practitioners teaching increasingly diverse age groups in their classrooms. Accordingly, we offer insights based on our recent systematic review aimed at distilling key findings from research on the science of adult learning focused on cognitive ageing and effective interventions to support learning.

Cognitive ageing refers to the gradual changes in cognitive abilities that occur naturally as healthy individuals grow older. This complex process affects a broad range of cognitive functions such as memory, attention, processing speed, and problem-solving skills. While these changes do not necessarily interfere with daily functioning, they can influence the way we learn.

What does science of adult learning research say?

Findings from our review show that cognitive ageing is not uniform. Contrary to popular belief, while some mental abilities like working memory and processing speed decline with age, there are others that remain stable or even improve. Particularly, implicit learning (i.e., learning that occurs without conscious awareness, such as acquiring new habits or motor skills); emotional intelligence; motivational regulation (i.e., the ability to direct efforts even in the face of setbacks and stay focussed on goals); and crystallised abilities (e.g., knowledge, vocabulary, and experience-based skills) are relatively preserved across adulthood. These insights can help practitioners design learning programmes that tap into these preserved abilities and tailor learning strategies to adult learners’ strengths.

Our review also identified a diverse range of interventions aimed at improving adult learning. Effective interventions included lifestyle interventions such as aerobic and strength training; cognitive-based interventions such as cognitive training programs; arts interventions such as learning how to play a music instrument; and other interventions such as the use of AI-based intelligent tutor software. These interventions positively impacted a range of learning-related outcomes including working memory, attention, metacognitive strategy use, and academic performance. Generally, our findings supported that combining approaches (e.g., physical exercise together with cognitive training) yielded the greatest cognitive benefits. It’s important to highlight that not all interventions worked equally well, and effectiveness was modulated by factors including age, socioeconomic status and education level, baseline cognitive function and brain structure, and intervention duration and dose. 

Actionable insights for educators

Supporting adult learners in maximising their potential requires a shift in teaching methods. Educators must move beyond a deficit-based view of ageing and adopt a strengths-based, multimodal approach that leverages what we know about how adults learn. Here are some actionable insights based to create a more effective and inclusive learning environments:

Leverage the Strengths of Adult Learners

Adults bring a wealth of life experience and specific cognitive strengths that educators can tap into. Rather than focusing on perceived declines in processing speed or memory, we can design curriculum and lessons to capitalise on these preserved abilities:

• Harness Crystallised Abilities: Adult learners have a vast store of knowledge, vocabulary, and experience-based skills. Frame new concepts by connecting them to what they already know. For example, in a business class, use real-world case studies and encourage learners to share their own professional experiences. This makes new information more relevant and easier to assimilate.
• Embrace Implicit Learning: Incorporate practice-based or gamified learning where students acquire skills through doing, often without conscious effort. For example, use simulations or role-playing exercises, or integrate hands-on lab work.
• Tap into Emotional and Motivational Regulation: Adults are often highly motivated, goal-oriented learners. We can acknowledge and leverage this by creating clear links between the course content and their professional or personal goals. Using emotion-based and arts-integrated activities would make learning more engaging and memorable. For instance, have them write reflective journals or create a short video to express their understanding of a topic. This not only reinforces learning but also helps them manage the emotional demands of returning to school.

Adapt Teaching Strategies for Cognitive Diversity

While capitalising on strengths is key, educators must also be mindful of cognitive changes associated with healthy ageing. We can adjust our teaching methods to support adult learners, particularly those who may experience slower processing speeds.

• Optimise Information Delivery: Avoid overwhelming learners with too much new information at once. Break down complex topics into smaller, digestible chunks. Use scaffolding content with adaptive, feedback-rich methods. Instead of a single, large assignment, provide a series of smaller tasks that build on each other, with immediate feedback. This approach helps reduce cognitive load and boosts confidence.
• Provide Ample Wait Time: In a classroom setting, it’s crucial to give adult learners more time to process questions and formulate answers. Interspersing short breaks or “think-pair-share” activities can give them the space they need to retrieve information and contribute meaningfully. This contrasts with a fast-paced environment that might favour younger students with quicker processing speeds.

Foster an Inclusive and Supportive Environment

A sense of belonging and psychological safety is paramount for adult learners, who may feel a unique set of anxieties about returning to school after a long hiatus.

• Leverage Adult Learners’ Prior Experiences: Encourage intergenerational collaboration and mentoring opportunities where younger and older students learn from each other. Assign group projects that mix ages and backgrounds. This not only leverages the diverse experiences in the room but also helps to break down stereotypes and build a stronger, more connected learning community.
• Apply Technology Thoughtfully: While AI-based tools show promise in enhancing learning, it’s important to use these tools to support, not replace, human interaction. We can use these tools to provide immediate feedback and personalised practice, freeing up class time for deeper discussions and collaborative problem-solving. This balance of technology and human connection is vital for creating a truly supportive learning environment for adult learners.

Conclusion

As the global workforce ages and the demand for lifelong learning grows, higher education is entering a pivotal moment of transformation. Findings from the science of adult learning provide a powerful roadmap for educators to embrace a strengths-based, age-inclusive approach so that universities can ensure that their classrooms become vibrant hubs of intergenerational learning. This not only empowers working adults to thrive in an ever-changing world but also transforms the role of higher education institutions in support of the rapidly ageing global population.

This article is based on findings from “Cognitive and neural mechanisms of learning and interventions for improvement across the adult lifespan: A systematic review” DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106281

This study was funded by Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE) under MOE-SOL-2023T001. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Singapore MOE.