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Increasing Child Language Ability through Parent-Child Talk

Increasing Child Language Ability through Parent-Child Talk

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As parents, we all love talking to our children and even more so, hearing our children talk to us. Research shows that parent-child talk contributes to language ability in early childhood. Language ability is identified to be among the best predictors of school readiness and later school success (Hoff 2013, Burchinal et al. 2016). Language ability in early childhood is also influenced by exposure to language used by caregivers.

Why is parent-child talk important?

The parent-child talk relationship has received much attention especially since Hart and Risley’s (1995) important research, which estimated that, by the time children are 4 years old, those who face socioeconomic status (SES) challenges in their home environments possibly have heard 30 million words fewer than their more affluent peers. Preliminary evidence from the Thirty Million Words Initiative (Thirty Million Words Initiative) suggested that when parents talk to their children in daily life routines regularly, this increased the number of words and conversational turns children produced during parent-child interactions.

How can we categorise parent-child talk?

Research has suggested the following categories of parent-child talk that give children language learning opportunities as early as 2 years old:

1.Quantity of language input:

Number of words in a sentence, number of new words paired with gestures like pointing

2.Quality of language-based parent child interactions: 

Rhymes and songs during back-and-forth conversations, letter sounds, and word sounds that children can be exposed to during daily routines or outings

 

Opportunities to improve the quantity and quality of children’s language experiences are not restricted to any home or classroom contexts. A group of researchers (Ridge et al., 2015) took an innovative approach to spark parent–child conversations in supermarkets by putting up signs such as “What is your favourite vegetable?” and “Where does the milk come from?” They found that such measures and ideas can increase the quantity and quality of talk between parents/caregivers and children in both inside and outside home environments regardless of socioeconomic status. They also supported the language experiences for these families and building language abilities in their children.

Key takeaways:

How can we increase child language output in parent-child relationships regardless of socioeconomic status?

Reading picture books or books with both words and pictures for children to engage in language and literacy learning opportunities such as receptive vocabulary, oral language skills, letter-word identification, and how letters are written and look like (Christian et al. 1998, Park 2008, Froiland et al. 2014).

Utilising talking opportunities in daily life routines (mealtimes, shower times, grocery runs, bedtimes) regularly to increase the number of words and back and forth conversation turns produced during parent-child interactions (Pace, Luo, Hirsh-Pasek and Golinkoff,2017).

 
Creating instances of language learning both inside and outside the home with parents/caregivers. Providing a variety of textured books and toys at home, visiting places like the zoo or the park, and discussing these experiences during walks or while waiting for the bus can all enhance language learning. Even a single trip to the public library has a significant impact on enriching children’s reading experiences.

 

Enriched language experiences can improve children’s overall readiness for school and build in them a love for their language, from a young age.

 

 

 

References

Burchinal, M., Foster, T. J., Bezdek, K. G., Bratsch-Hines, M., Blair, C., Vernon-Feagans, L., & Family Life Project Investigators. (2020). School-entry skills predicting school-age academic and social–emotional trajectories. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 67-80.

Christian, K., Morrison, F. J., & Bryant, F. B. (1998). Predicting kindergarten academic skills: Interactions among child care, maternal education, and family literacy environments. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13(3), 501-521.

Froiland, J. M., Powell, D. R., & Diamond, K. E. (2014). Relations among neighborhood social networks, home literacy environments, and children’s expressive vocabulary in suburban at-risk families. School Psychology International, 35(4), 429-444.

Hirsh-Pasek, K., Adamson, L. B., Bakeman, R., Owen, M. T., Golinkoff, R. M., Pace, A., Yust, K S P., & Suma, K. (2015). The contribution of early communication quality to low-income children’s language success. Psychological science, 26(7), 1071-1083.

Hart, B., & Risley, T. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Hoff, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influence: Socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development, 74, 1368–1378.

Pace, A., Luo, R., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2017). Identifying pathways between socioeconomic status and language development. Annual review of linguistics, 3(2017), 285-308.

Park, H. (2008). The varied educational effects of parent-child communication: A comparative study of fourteen countries. Comparative education review, 52(2), 219-243.

Ridge, K. E., Weisberg, D. S., Ilgaz, H., Hirsh‐Pasek, K. A., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2015). Supermarket speak: Increasing talk among low‐socioeconomic status families. Mind, Brain, and Education, 9(3), 127-135.

Reading with my child

Reading with my child

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Why Read With Your Child?

  1. Reading with your child aids in the development of literacy skills that form the foundation for successful reading in later years (Children’s Bureau , 2023). 
  2. Moreover, through reading, your child can learn skills to better manage their emotions, and further develop their social skills (Schoppmann et al., 2023). 
  3. Storytelling entails an immersive experience of fantasy and fiction, thus stimulating the child’s imaginative thinking (Niland, 2023). 
  4. Reading is an excellent method in spending quality time with your child

Tips for reading with your child (Raising Children Network, 2023) 

  1. Before Reading  
    1.  Have your child choose a book that they are interested in at the library or at the bookstore. 
    2. Ask questions about the book, e.g., “Why did you pick this book?”. 
  2. During Reading 
    1. Make it fun – Vary your intonation and speed and adopt different voices and expressions depending on the character in the story. 
    2. Engage – Ask questions about the story and help them understand the characters’ perspectives. 
    3. Build connections between fiction and real-life – Draw parallels between the characters and observations in real-life situations, e.g., “We saw this bear in the zoo yesterday, didn’t we?” 
    4. Provide trivia information – Provide more information about the characters, like animals, or natural phenomena when applicable. 
  3. After Reading  
    1. Reading-related activities – Consider other reading-related activities such as drawings or creating stories together. 
    2. Model good reading habits – Read more in front of your child to encourage them to read. 

 

References 

Children’s Bureau. (2023, May 11). Benefits & importance of reading to children: Children’s bureau. Child Abuse Prevention, Treatment & Welfare Services | Children’s Bureau. https://www.all4kids.org/news/blog/the-importance-of-reading-to-your-children/#:~:text=This%20is%20because%20reading%20to,language%2C%20literacy%20and%20social%20skills.  

Niland, A. (2023). Picture books, imagination and play: Pathways to positive reading identities for young children. Education Sciences, 13(5), 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13050511  

Reading with preschoolers. Raising Children Network. (2023, August 25). https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/play-learning/literacy-reading-stories/reading-with-preschoolers  

Schoppmann, J., Severin, F., Schneider, S., & Seehagen, S. (2023). The effect of picture book reading on young children’s use of an emotion regulation strategy. PLOS ONE, 18(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289403  

Written by: Serena

Edited by: Keval

Reviewed by: Annabel, Joyce, Tiffany

Navigating Reading Difficulties: A Parent’s Guide for their child

Navigating Reading Difficulties: A Parent’s Guide for their child

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As parents, we all want our children to excel in school and develop a love for learning. However, children can sometimes encounter reading difficulties that may make this journey a bit more challenging. In this post, we will explore what reading difficulties are, their prevalence rates in Singapore, how these difficulties can impact your child’s learning in school and provide insights on how to support them effectively. 

What Are Reading Difficulties? 

Reading difficulties are challenges that children may face when learning to read. These difficulties can manifest in various ways and may affect a child’s ability to read, spell, and comprehend text.  

Types of Reading Difficulties:

  1. Dyslexia: Dyslexia is perhaps the most well-known reading difficulty. It primarily affects a child’s ability to decode words accurately and fluently (Dyslexia Association of Singapore, 2019). Children with dyslexia often struggle with phonological awareness, which is the ability to recognize and manipulate the sounds in words. 
  2. Dysgraphia: Dysgraphia is a writing-specific reading difficulty that affects a child’s handwriting and fine motor skills (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2023). This can make it challenging for children to express their thoughts on paper, which can hinder both reading and writing skills. 
  3. Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Some children may have difficulty understanding and retaining what they read (Catts et al., 2016). This can lead to problems with comprehension and retention of information from textbooks and classroom lectures. 
  4. Visual Processing Disorders: Visual processing difficulties can make it hard for a child to interpret and make sense of visual information, such as letters and words on a page (Slaghuis et al., 1996). This can significantly impact reading skills. 

Prevalence Rates in Singapore 

According to a 2017-18 annual report by the Dyslexia Association of Singapore, approximately 10% of the population in Singapore is estimated to have some form of learning difficulty (Dyslexia Association of Singapore, n.d.). This means that in a classroom of 30 students, it’s likely that at least three of them may face reading difficulties. While these figures provide an overview of the prevalence of reading difficulties, it’s essential to remember that each child is unique, and their challenges may vary. 

How Reading Difficulties Affect Your Child’s Learning 

Reading difficulties can have far-reaching consequences on your child’s academic journey and self-esteem (Boyes et al., 2018; Hamilton & Glascoe, 2006): 

  1. Academic Struggles: Reading difficulties do not only affect learning in language subjects, children with reading difficulties may also perform below their potential in various subjects that require reading, such as mathematics, science and social studies. 
  2. Low Self-Esteem: Repeated struggles with reading can erode a child’s self-confidence and self-esteem, making them feel inadequate or different from their peers. 
  3. Frustration and Anxiety: Reading difficulties can lead to frustration and anxiety in school, as children may face challenges in keeping up with assignments and tests. 
  4. Avoidance of Reading: To avoid embarrassment or frustration, some children may avoid reading altogether, which can hinder their overall learning experience. 

Supporting Your Child 

It is important to note that reading difficulties are not indicative of a child’s overall intelligence, and most children can overcome them with the right support. As parents, there are several ways you can support your child with reading difficulties (Horowitz-Kraus et al., 2014): 

  1. Early Intervention: Recognize the signs of reading difficulties early and seek help from teachers, specialists, or educational psychologists. 
  2. Tailored Learning Plans: Work with educators to create personalized learning plans that accommodate your child’s specific needs. 
  3. Encourage Reading: Foster a love for reading by providing access to age-appropriate books that cater to your child’s interests. 
  4. Patience and Support: Be patient and empathetic, providing emotional support to help your child navigate their challenges. 
  5. Advocacy: Advocate for your child’s needs within the school system to ensure they receive the necessary accommodations and support. 

Conclusion 

Reading difficulties are common, and many children in Singapore and around the world face them. Understanding the types of reading difficulties, their prevalence rates, and the potential impact on your child’s learning is the first step towards providing effective support. With early intervention, personalized learning plans, and a nurturing environment, you can empower your child to overcome these challenges and thrive academically and personally. Remember, every child has unique strengths, and with the right support, they can achieve their full potential. 

 

References 

Boyes, M. E., Tebbutt, B., Preece, K. A., & Badcock, N. A. (2018). Relationships between reading ability and child mental health: Moderating effects of self‐esteem. Australian Psychologist, 53(2), 125-133. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12281  

Catts, H. W., Nielsen, D. C., Bridges, M. S., & Liu, Y. S. (2016). Early identification of reading comprehension difficulties. Journal of learning disabilities, 49(5), 451-465. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0022219414556121 

Dyslexia Association Singapore. (n.d.). HELPING DYSLEXIC PEOPLE ACHIEVE. https://www.dasacademy.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/AnnualReport2017_2018.pdf.  

Dyslexia Association of Singapore. (2019, March 21). WHAT IS DYSLEXIA? https://www.das.org.sg/about-dyslexia/what-is-dyslexia/what-is-dyslexia.html 

Hamilton, S. S., & Glascoe, F. P. (2006). Evaluation of children with reading difficulties. American Family Physician, 74(12), 2079-2086. 

Horowitz‐Kraus, T., Vannest, J. J., Kadis, D., Cicchino, N., Wang, Y. Y., & Holland, S. K. (2014). Reading acceleration training changes brain circuitry in children with reading difficulties. Brain and Behavior, 4(6), 886-902. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.281 

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (2023, January 20). Dysgraphia. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/dysgraphia#:~:text=What%20is%20dysgraphia%3F,are%20first%20introduced%20to%20writing. 

Slaghuis, W. L., A.J. Twell, & Kingston, K. (1996). Visual and language processing disorders are concurrent in Dyslexia and continue into adulthood. Cortex, 32(3), 413–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-9452(96)80002-5 

Written by: Keval

Edited by: Michelle and Phoebe

Reviewed by: Joyce

Learning to read: Interactive reading between parents & children

Learning to read: Interactive reading between parents & children

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Fig 1. Strategies for Interactive Reading

Children enjoy spending time with their parents while actively listening to their parents reading storybooks or telling interesting stories to them. Is there more to interactive reading between parents and children than just enjoyment? In this post, we will discuss the importance of interactive reading!

Interactive reading is a form of positive experience that can enhance children’s language learning and reading abilities. During interactive reading, both readers (e.g., the parent and the child) are encouraged to ask questions and talk about the book. This allows children to become active participants in the reading activity and helps adults to check children’s understanding of the book content (WebJunction, Online Computer Library Center, 2018).

One important aspect of interactive reading is the opportunity for children to learn the articulation of words (Horowitz-Kraus & Hutton, 2015; Werker & Tees, 1984). Exposing a child to verbally read and listen to sounds of the word is equally as important as letting them understand the meaning of the word. Through interactive reading, a child can learn the sounds of words accurately. In addition, other components of reading such as semantics (i.e., meanings of words) and syntax (i.e., grammar) are also improved through interactive reading.

Research suggests that children’s reading and language development can significantly improve with interactive reading (Saracho and Spodek, 2010). Additionally, children may become more interested in reading and being read to. Interactive reading can also become a shared family activity that could help to strengthen the parent-child emotional bonds. There are also potential benefits (Shah-Wundenberg et al., 2013) of parents simply reading together with their children for 10 to 15 minutes daily or several times a week – a tip for busy parents!

In conclusion, interactive reading between parents and children is a helpful tool that can help children improve their language and reading abilities (Horowitz-Kraus & Hutton, 2015). It is okay to start out small (e.g., 10 minutes before dinner or before bed) with a simple book (e.g., have your child pick out their favourite book from school or a library), and slowly build up towards making interactive reading a daily activity. Check out this guide by the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) on interactive reading for young children!

References

Horowitz-Kraus, T., & Hutton, J. S. (2015). From emergent literacy to reading: how learning to read changes a child’s brain. Acta Paediatrica, 104(7), 648–656. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13018https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13018

Saracho, O. N., & Spodek, B. (2010). Parents and children engaging in storybook reading. Early child development and care, 180(10), 1379-1389.

Shah-Wundenberg, M et al., (2013). Parents helping their children learn to read: The effectiveness of paired reading and hearing reading in a developing country context. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 13(4), 471-500. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798412438067

WebJunction, Online Computer Library Center. (2018). Interactive Reading. https://www.webjunction.org/content/dam/WebJunction/Documents/webJunction/supercharged-storytimes/module1/interactive-reading-handout.pdf

Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (1984). Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. Infant Behavior and Development, 7(1), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0163-6383(84)80022-3https://doi.org/10.1016/s0163-6383(84)80022-3

Figure 1 – obtained from https://thecolorfulapple.com/2020/04/interactive-read-aloud-strategies/

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Edited by: Michelle, Phoebe

Reviewed by: Annabel, Joyce, Marilyn, Tiffany

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Reading In Chinese

Reading In Chinese

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Children read or “decode” English words in ways that are distinct from those used to break down Chinese characters. Although some children might be able to decode either English or Chinese words, such skills do not carry over to the other language. Instead, different decoding strategies have to be learned and retained in order to gain understanding in that particular language. Hence, it is common for children to be better in one language compared to another.  

 

Figure 1. Example of English decoding using letter-sound correspondences 

Research has shown that three of the most common strategies used by children to remember and decode Chinese characters emphasised visual processing instead of oral processing (Pine et al., 2003). Furthermore, younger children, below the age of 9, have a higher tendency to separate Chinese characters into its smaller and more basic components. 

 

Figure 2. Levels of Chinese word complexity; Word, Character, Radical 

Reading in Chinese involves both single-character reading and multi-character word reading. In general, most Chinese words are compound words, comprising two or more characters (Wang & McBride, 2016). For instance, in Figure 2, the word 冰水 (ice water) consists of two characters–冰 (ice) and 水 (water). Additionally, more than 80% of currently used Chinese characters are compound characters which have two radicals indicating the pronunciation and meaning respectively (Kang & Li, 1993). For example, the character “冰” (ice) comprises two parts–the phonetic component 水 (water) and the semantic component 冫(cold). The phonetic component is pronounced shuǐ, signifying the sound of the character while the semantic component represents the meaning of the character, which is “ice”. It is important for children to understand how the positions and functions of different components vary in Chinese words. (Li et al., 2012; Tong et al., 2009) It has also been found that children begin to be aware of how Chinese words are written from the age of six (Anderson et al., 2013).  

Thus, it is important for parents to encourage their children to read aloud in Chinese. Additionally, it may be helpful for parents to cultivate a habit of paying attention to the different components of Chinese characters when reading in Chinese with their children to aid learning of new words in the future. 

 

References: 

Anderson, R. C., Ku, Y. M., Li, W., Chen, X., Wu, X., & Shu, H. (2013). Learning to see the patterns in Chinese characters. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17(1), 41-56. 

Li, Y., & Kang, J. (1993). Information analysis of usage of characters in modern Chinese. Shanghai: Shanghai Education Publisher, 84-98. 

Li, T., McBride-Chang, C., Wong, A., & Shu, H. (2012). Longitudinal predictors of spelling and reading comprehension in Chinese as an L1 and English as an L2 in Hong Kong Chinese children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 286. 

Limetree Literacy. (2022). Letter Sound Association.https://limetree-literacy-education.teachable.com/courses/397574/lectures/4399504 

Pine, N., Ping’an, H., & Ren Song, H. (2003). Decoding strategies used by Chinese primary school children. Journal of Literacy Research, 35(2), 777-812. 

Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., & Wong, A. M. (2009). Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(5), 426-452. 

Wang, Y., & McBride, C. (2016). Character reading and word reading in Chinese: Unique correlates for Chinese kindergarteners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37(2), 371-386. 

 

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Edited by: Phoebe, Michelle

Reviewed by: Marilyn

The Dual-Route Model of Reading

The Dual-Route Model of Reading

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Reading is a multisensory task that requires the integration of visual and audio stimuli, namely printed letters and speech sounds, respectively. According to the ‘Dual-Route Model of Reading’, reading can be achieved by either the lexical route or the sublexical route (Coltheart et al., 1993). The lexical route allows us to map a word’s orthographic structure (for instance a string of letters) onto its pronunciation directly, while the sublexical route allows us to pronounce words by breaking down the word’s structure into smaller sound units and putting them together (Joubert et al., 2004).

Using brain imaging techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), researchers have discovered that several areas in the left hemisphere of the brain make up the reading network (Raschle et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2018). These areas may be associated with different functions to help us read. The first area that helps us recognize letters and words is in the fusiform gyrus, also known as the visual word form area. The temporo-parietal area allows us to play with the sounds of words, and the middle temporal gyrus helps us understand the meanings of words. The inferior frontal gyrus, also known as Broca’s area, directs us to generate the sounds and meanings of words. Hence, a widespread network of brain areas is active as we read.

Through functional neuroimaging, research has also shown that the Dual-Route Model of Reading may be mapped to distinct brain areas to help us identify and read words (Roux et al., 2012). Reading via the sublexical “indirect” pathway engages the dorsal (top) areas of the brain, whereas reading via the lexical “direct” pathway involves the ventral (bottom) part of the brain (Jobard et al., 2003).

Figure 1. Dorsal and Ventral areas of the brain

In addition, research has shown that our brain uses different pathways when reading English words versus Chinese words. English is an alphabetic language, in which the sublexical pathway is used when reading regular words (e.g., brain, melt), while the lexical pathway helps us to read irregular words (e.g., pint, glove) (Wu & O’Brien, in press). In contrast, reading Chinese characters relies more on the lexical pathway as the pronunciation of a character is learnt through rote memorisation (Wu & O’Brien, in press). Overall, when reading English words, the pathway we use depends on the type of words we are reading, whereas when reading Chinese characters, we are mainly using the lexical pathway.

 

References

Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological review, 100(4), 589-608. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.589   

Jobard, G., Crivello, F., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2003). Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: a metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage, 20(2), 693-712. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00343-4

Joubert, S., Beauregard, M., Walter, N., Bourgouin, P., Beaudoin, G., Leroux, J., Karama, S., & Lecours, A. R. (2004). Neural correlates of lexical and sublexical processes in reading. Brain and language, 89(1), 9-20. https://doi.org.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00403-6

Smith, G. J., Booth, J. R., & McNorgan, C. (2018). Longitudinal Task-Related Functional Connectivity Changes Predict Reading Development. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 1754. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01754

Raschle, N. M. R., Borbás, R. B., King, C. K., & Gaab, N. G. (2020). The Magical Art of Magnetic Resonance Imaging to Study the Reading Brain. Frontiers for Young Minds. https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2020.00072 

Roux, F., Durand, J., Jucla, M., Réhault, E., Reddy, M., & Démonet, J. (2012). Segregation of lexical and sub-lexical reading processes in the left perisylvian cortex. PLoS one, 7(11), e50665. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050665

Wu, C.-Y., & O’Brien, B. A. (In press). Brain Signatures of Reading within Different Types of Learners and across Written Languages: Evidence and Implications for Education. In D. W. L. Hung, A. Jamaludin, & A. A. Rahman (Eds.), Applying the Science of Learning to Education: An Insight into the Mechanisms that Shape Learning. Singapore: Springer Nature.

Figure 1 – https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg

 

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Edited by Phoebe, Michelle & Joyce

Using MRI to Explore Brain Structures and Functions

Using MRI to Explore Brain Structures and Functions

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What is MRI? Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a safe and non-invasive scanning procedure that is commonly used for medical and research purposes. The MRI scanner is like a very motion-sensitive camera that can take pictures of our body, including our brain! MRI is unlike other neuroimaging techniques, such as X-rays and CT scans, that use radiation to obtain images of our body parts. Rather, it utilises magnets and radio waves to produce detailed pictures of brain structures, body organs and more (Hirsch, 2022). MRI is now one of the more commonly used tools that help neuroscientists study brain structures and functions.

How does MRI produce scanned images of our brain? To produce a high resolution 3-Dimensional (3D) image of the brain, the MRI scanner first obtains brain images in slices. It works like a camera, but instead of taking 2-Dimensional (2D) photos in pixels, the MRI scanner creates a 3D view of the brain in voxels (a tiny cube with edges of 1-3mm). The more voxels obtained and the smaller the voxel size is, the clearer and more detailed the 3D image can be. As MRI is very sensitive to motion, participants going into the MRI scanner play an important role in staying as still as possible while the MRI obtains images of brain slices to form a high-quality image. These high-resolution 3D images shed light on several aspects of brain structures such as their sizes and shapes.

Figure 1 – The importance of pixels and voxels in formation of clear and detailed images. (A) For the same object, large and small numbers of pixels give rise to high-resolution (left) and low-resolution (right) images, respectively. (B) The voxel is used to form 3D images, while the pixel is used for 2D.

What about functional MRI (fMRI)? Neurons in different areas of the brain are activated when individuals engage in different tasks. For example, researchers can ask participants to read a text or watch a video while they undergo an fMRI scan. When neurons in certain brain areas are activated, they consume energy and induce an influx of blood flow that carries oxygen in the nearby blood vessels. An fMRI scan detects changes in the oxygen level of blood flow in different areas of the brain. It can be used to identify the areas that are more actively working, thus aiding researchers in studying brain functions.

How is MRI used? MRI scanners have a plethora of uses in scientific and medical fields. For instance, scientists can study how different brain structures change in size and shape as a person ages. Medical professionals can also check for abnormalities in a patient’s brain to aid the diagnosis and planning of surgeries. Furthermore, fMRI scans also allow scientists to measure brain activity and study their specialised functions. Figure 2 shows an fMRI scan of a person’s brain while he/she is doing a task in the MRI scanner – the activated areas (highlighted in red) can be identified and mapped. Thus, MRI is and continues to be a powerful and important tool in studying the structures and functions of a human brain.

Figure 2 – An example fMRI scan showing brain activity (Tian, 2010). Brain areas that are relatively more active (highlighted in the images) during a functional MRI scan will be identified due to its higher Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent (BOLD) signal detected by the MRI scanner.

References

Hirsch, L. H. (2022, February). Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Brain (for Parents) – Nemours KidsHealth. KidsHealth. https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/mri-brain.html

Hoyos, P. M. H., Kim, N. Y. K., & Kastner, S. K. (2019, June 28). How Is Magnetic Resonance Imaging Used to Learn About the Brain? Frontiers for Young Minds. https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2019.00086

Tian, T. S. (2010). Functional Data Analysis in Brain Imaging Studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 1. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00035

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What Is Bilingualism Research About?

What Is Bilingualism Research About?

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Bilingualism refers to the ability to speak or understand two languages. Singapore is a multilingual society with English, Mandarin, Malay, and Tamil being the main languages used. A child can become bilingual in multiple ways. For example, a child learns two languages when the child’s parents and caregivers switch between two languages frequently during daily interactions, thereby becoming bilingual. Another way is when the language spoken at home differs from the language spoken in school, the child picks up both languages and become bilingual (Walsh, 2015). Children enrolled in the Singapore education system become bilingual through different ways and learn to use two languages fluently.

Previous research has shown that bilingual children utilise cognitive resources beyond those needed for basic language learning when they switch between two languages (Walsh, 2015). For example, bilingual children have been observed to perform better than their monolingual counterparts in tasks that require executive function, which involves skills such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, attention control and reasoning (Bialystok et al., 2012).

Everyone’s bilingual status is dynamic–it changes over time. To understand how bilingualism develops, we explore aspects of the language environment such as the main language spoken at home, to recognise trends in children’s development. We also look into how the brain supports the development of these different languages. By conducting more bilingual studies, we are able to consider more variables that play key roles in an individual’s developmental trajectory. Additionally, we can also learn how language development can be better supported.

 

References

Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain. Trends in cognitive sciences, 16(4), 240-250.

Walsh, B. W. (2015, October 1). Bilingualism as a Life Experience. Harvard Graduate School of Education. https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/uk/15/10/bilingualism-life-experience#:%7E:text=Bilingualism%20and%20executive%20function&text=Recent%20research%20has%20shown%20that,reasoning%2C%20and%20flexible%20problem%20solving

 

Drafted by: Kah Xuan

Edited by: Phoebe, Michelle, Joyce, Prof Annabel

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