Science of Reading

Reading fluently and knowing the meaning of what you are reading involves various skills such as phonemic awareness (i.e., knowing how to read the sounds in words), phonics (i.e., knowing how letters sound like), vocabulary (i.e., knowing the meaning of words), reading fluency (i.e., the ability to read smoothly), and comprehension (i.e., understanding what you are reading) (National University Hospital, 2023). These are some of the main skills that would help one become a fluent reader.  

Reading difficulties may occur where there is a specific skill or a range of skills that a child is struggling with when learning how to read. According to National University Hospital (2023), reading difficulty may be attributed to specific learning disorders (e.g., dyslexia), lack of literacy experiences, impairments in language and sensory processing, weakness in auditory and visual processing, and difficulties in sustaining attention. While it is beneficial to be aware and look out for signs of reading difficulties, if you suspect that your child might have reading difficulties, it would be best to consult a professional for a proper diagnosis. 

After observing or having diagnosed reading difficulties in your child, you might be wondering what you can do to better support them in their learning journey. Here are some evidence-based suggestions: 

1. Expose your child to books regularly and try out books of different genres and topics. 

It is important for children to enjoy what they are reading to motivate them to spend more time with books. As children may not yet know how to choose level-appropriate books, parents and caregivers can help with the book selection process. According to Associate Professor Kaye Lowe from the University of Canberra, choosing books that contain a child’s interests or what they find important is an important link to literacy (NSW Department of Education, 2022). 

Fig. 1: Child choosing from a wide range of books.

For starters, parents and caregivers can introduce books of different genres to their children. Some examples of genres include non-fiction, fantasy, science fiction, and poetry. Through this process, your child can explore the wide variety of reading materials available to them and find a genre that they enjoy reading. Parents and caregivers can also find books which include what your child is interested in, like animals, vehicles, or superheroes, for example. 

2. Participate in “echo reading” with your child.  

As it can be challenging and intimidating for children with reading difficulties to read a whole book by themselves, try echo reading to encourage them. Depending on your child’s ability and the book’s difficulty level, read a sentence, paragraph, or a suitable chunk of text, and ask your child to repeat after you. Trace your finger smoothly underneath the text that you are reading. 

Fig. 2: Reading together with your children can benefit language learning.

Echo reading and tracking the words whilst reading has been shown in several studies to be an effective method to improve children’s fluency in reading (Duran and Sezgin,2012; Knoll,2015).  

3. Participate in “repeated reading” with your child. 

Repeated reading involves your child reading a selected passage out loud for 3 or more times, during which you, the parent/caregiver, correct mistakes in reading or prompt your child when they hesitate for a long time. Your child should repeatedly read the entire passage until they reach a satisfactory level of fluency and accuracy. 

Fig. 3: Encourage your child to repeat passages until they are fluent.

By improving reading fluency through steps 2-3, reading comprehension can also be better supported through training automatic word reading (compared to laborious decoding of each word) and freeing cognitive resources to focus on word meaning. 

4. Facilitate story mapping during reading sessions. 

What is story mapping? Story mapping acts as a visual aid and prompts your child to identify relevant story-grammar information from a story, including the characters, setting, problem, and resolution, and linking them together. Have your child complete a story map while reading a story and ask them to answer questions about the story afterwards. When your child gets better at identifying story-grammar elements, remove the story map but prompt them to self-question by taking note of the same elements in the next few stories that they read and visualising the map. Finish off by asking them comprehension and inference questions after they finish reading the stories. 

How does story mapping help? Using story mapping, children can improve their reading comprehension through training their mental imagery of the stories and keeping the stories’ content in their memory. Asking your child questions about stories keeps the stories’ information fresh in their memory and helps them become better at linking it with their prior knowledge, which is stored in their long-term memory. The story mapping process can help to increase children’s vocabulary capacity and in turn, help them better understand what they are reading when they encounter new reading materials. 

How does the story mapping process help children with reading difficulties? The story mapping process helps to breakdown the storyline into bite-sized information for children with reading difficulties, so that the information is easier for them to process. Story mapping is applicable to any type of books and give parents and caregivers opportunities to check their child’s understanding of the reading material.  

5. It takes consistent effort to see improvement. Always remain supportive for your child! 

It can be emotionally challenging and frustrating for your child when they participate in reading sessions. Continue to encourage them and acknowledge their hard work! An enjoyable time reading will help them want to read more, which is beneficial for their reading development in the long run. 

 

References

Boulineau, T., Fore, C., Hagan-Burke, S, & Burke, M. D. (2004). Use of story-mapping to increase the story-grammar text comprehension of elementary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27(2), 105-121. https://doi.org/10.2307/1593645  

Duran, E., & Sezgin, B. (2012). The effect of echo reading method to fluency reading. Ondokuz Mayis Univ Egitim Fakultesi, 31(2). https://doi.org/10.7822/egt85  

Hudson, A., Poh, W. K., Moore, K. A., & Binks-Cantrell, E. (2020). Fluency interventions for elementary students with reading difficulties: A synthesis of research from 2000-2019. Education Sciences, 10(3), 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10030052  

Knoll, E. (2015). Using echo reading and tracking simultaneously during small group read alouds with preschool children (Publication No. 287). [Master’s Thesis, Rowan University]. Theses and Dissertations.  

National University Hospital. (2023, August 23). Reading Difficulty (Children). https://www.nuh.com.sg/Health-Information/Diseases-Conditions/Pages/Reading-Difficulty-(Children).aspx  

NSW Department of Education. (2022, June 14). What to do if your child is struggling to read or write. https://education.nsw.gov.au/parents-and-carers/learning/english/when-older-kids-struggle  

Stevens, E. A., Walker, M. A., & Vaughn, S. (2017). The effects of reading fluency interventions on the reading fluency and reading comprehension performance of elementary students with learning disabilities: A synthesis of the research from 2001 to 2014. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(5), 576-590. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219416638028   

Woolley, G. (2007). A comprehension intervention for children with reading comprehension difficulties. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12(1), 43-50. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404150709546829 

 

Written by: Claire

Edited by: Michelle & Phoebe

Fig 1. Strategies for Interactive Reading

Children enjoy spending time with their parents while actively listening to their parents reading storybooks or telling interesting stories to them. Is there more to interactive reading between parents and children than just enjoyment? In this post, we will discuss the importance of interactive reading!

Interactive reading is a form of positive experience that can enhance children’s language learning and reading abilities. During interactive reading, both readers (e.g., the parent and the child) are encouraged to ask questions and talk about the book. This allows children to become active participants in the reading activity and helps adults to check children’s understanding of the book content (WebJunction, Online Computer Library Center, 2018).

One important aspect of interactive reading is the opportunity for children to learn the articulation of words (Horowitz-Kraus & Hutton, 2015; Werker & Tees, 1984). Exposing a child to verbally read and listen to sounds of the word is equally as important as letting them understand the meaning of the word. Through interactive reading, a child can learn the sounds of words accurately. In addition, other components of reading such as semantics (i.e., meanings of words) and syntax (i.e., grammar) are also improved through interactive reading.

Research suggests that children’s reading and language development can significantly improve with interactive reading (Saracho and Spodek, 2010). Additionally, children may become more interested in reading and being read to. Interactive reading can also become a shared family activity that could help to strengthen the parent-child emotional bonds. There are also potential benefits (Shah-Wundenberg et al., 2013) of parents simply reading together with their children for 10 to 15 minutes daily or several times a week – a tip for busy parents!

In conclusion, interactive reading between parents and children is a helpful tool that can help children improve their language and reading abilities (Horowitz-Kraus & Hutton, 2015). It is okay to start out small (e.g., 10 minutes before dinner or before bed) with a simple book (e.g., have your child pick out their favourite book from school or a library), and slowly build up towards making interactive reading a daily activity. Check out this guide by the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) on interactive reading for young children!

References

Horowitz-Kraus, T., & Hutton, J. S. (2015). From emergent literacy to reading: how learning to read changes a child’s brain. Acta Paediatrica, 104(7), 648–656. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13018https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13018

Saracho, O. N., & Spodek, B. (2010). Parents and children engaging in storybook reading. Early child development and care, 180(10), 1379-1389.

Shah-Wundenberg, M et al., (2013). Parents helping their children learn to read: The effectiveness of paired reading and hearing reading in a developing country context. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 13(4), 471-500. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798412438067

WebJunction, Online Computer Library Center. (2018). Interactive Reading. https://www.webjunction.org/content/dam/WebJunction/Documents/webJunction/supercharged-storytimes/module1/interactive-reading-handout.pdf

Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (1984). Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. Infant Behavior and Development, 7(1), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0163-6383(84)80022-3https://doi.org/10.1016/s0163-6383(84)80022-3

Figure 1 – obtained from https://thecolorfulapple.com/2020/04/interactive-read-aloud-strategies/

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Drafted by: Keval

Edited by: Michelle, Phoebe

Reviewed by: Annabel, Joyce, Marilyn, Tiffany

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Part of our pursuit in understanding reading development lies in identifying the neural brain networks used during reading activities. To do so, some of our projects make use of a brain imaging technique called Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). MRI is preferred in research as it is non-invasive and is able to create highly detailed images of the brain in real-time (Hoyos et al., 2019). Unlike X-rays, MRI does not use radiation and no long-term harmful effects are implicated in MRI scans (National Neuroscience Institute, 2021). Rather, MRI has a strong magnetic field and uses magnetic pulses to capture images. Thus, it is important to remove any metallic objects (e.g., braces, jewellery, clothing with metallic materials) from your body before entering an MRI scanner.

Figure 1: Photograph of a Mock Scanner

During an MRI brain scan, you will lie down on the MRI bed that will be moved into the scanner headfirst since the brain is being scanned. A head coil may be placed over the head and acts like an antenna that receive signals emitted from your brain during the scan. Sometimes, you may get to play some games while you are in the scanner! During the scanning process, you may hear some loud knocking noises. These sounds are created due to the constant switching-on-and-off of the many magnets in the machine – you can think of them as the shutter sounds of a large camera! Earplugs or headphones are provided to protect the ears. To prevent fuzzy or blurry pictures, it is important to stay as still as possible during the scanning process. Some helpful tips to stay still could be to regulate your breathing and to wiggle your fingers and toes. If you have any concerns about the MRI scan, it is best to clarify with the on-site radiographers and researchers before you begin your scan!

Figure 2: Key rules to follow to make MRI scanning a safe and fruitful procedure.

 

Drafted by: Serena

Edited by: Michelle, Phoebe

References

Hoyos, P. M., Kim, N. Y., & Kastner, S. (2019). How is magnetic resonance imaging used to learn about the brain?. Frontiers for young minds, 7(86).https://doi.org/10.3389/frym.2019.00086

National Neuroscience Institute. (2021, January 29). Must-remember information about MRI. Singhealth.https://www.nni.com.sg/news/patient-care/must-remember-information-about-mri

Children read or “decode” English words in ways that are distinct from those used to break down Chinese characters. Although some children might be able to decode either English or Chinese words, such skills do not carry over to the other language. Instead, different decoding strategies have to be learned and retained in order to gain understanding in that particular language. Hence, it is common for children to be better in one language compared to another.  

 

Figure 1. Example of English decoding using letter-sound correspondences 

Research has shown that three of the most common strategies used by children to remember and decode Chinese characters emphasised visual processing instead of oral processing (Pine et al., 2003). Furthermore, younger children, below the age of 9, have a higher tendency to separate Chinese characters into its smaller and more basic components. 

 

Figure 2. Levels of Chinese word complexity; Word, Character, Radical 

Reading in Chinese involves both single-character reading and multi-character word reading. In general, most Chinese words are compound words, comprising two or more characters (Wang & McBride, 2016). For instance, in Figure 2, the word 冰水 (ice water) consists of two characters–冰 (ice) and 水 (water). Additionally, more than 80% of currently used Chinese characters are compound characters which have two radicals indicating the pronunciation and meaning respectively (Kang & Li, 1993). For example, the character “冰” (ice) comprises two parts–the phonetic component 水 (water) and the semantic component 冫(cold). The phonetic component is pronounced shuǐ, signifying the sound of the character while the semantic component represents the meaning of the character, which is “ice”. It is important for children to understand how the positions and functions of different components vary in Chinese words. (Li et al., 2012; Tong et al., 2009) It has also been found that children begin to be aware of how Chinese words are written from the age of six (Anderson et al., 2013).  

Thus, it is important for parents to encourage their children to read aloud in Chinese. Additionally, it may be helpful for parents to cultivate a habit of paying attention to the different components of Chinese characters when reading in Chinese with their children to aid learning of new words in the future. 

 

References: 

Anderson, R. C., Ku, Y. M., Li, W., Chen, X., Wu, X., & Shu, H. (2013). Learning to see the patterns in Chinese characters. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17(1), 41-56. 

Li, Y., & Kang, J. (1993). Information analysis of usage of characters in modern Chinese. Shanghai: Shanghai Education Publisher, 84-98. 

Li, T., McBride-Chang, C., Wong, A., & Shu, H. (2012). Longitudinal predictors of spelling and reading comprehension in Chinese as an L1 and English as an L2 in Hong Kong Chinese children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 286. 

Limetree Literacy. (2022). Letter Sound Association.https://limetree-literacy-education.teachable.com/courses/397574/lectures/4399504 

Pine, N., Ping’an, H., & Ren Song, H. (2003). Decoding strategies used by Chinese primary school children. Journal of Literacy Research, 35(2), 777-812. 

Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., Shu, H., & Wong, A. M. (2009). Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition. Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(5), 426-452. 

Wang, Y., & McBride, C. (2016). Character reading and word reading in Chinese: Unique correlates for Chinese kindergarteners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37(2), 371-386. 

 

Drafted by: Kah Xuan

Edited by: Phoebe, Michelle

Reviewed by: Marilyn

Reading is an important skill in learning how to use a language. However, reading abilities may differ across individuals, even for children. Books need to be challenging enough for one to learn from and be interested in, but not to the extent that it discourages one from trying to read! How might we find this balance? The five-finger rule is one method parents can use to select appropriate books for their child.

Try it out by following the steps in the image below!

According to the five-finger rule (above), books that get 1-3 fingers raised are appropriate for your child, while books that receive 4-5 raised fingers may be too challenging – parents may choose to switch to an easier book for your child to read. However, if your child is very interested in the topic despite the number of difficult vocabulary, you can read the book together with your child (Scholastic, 2022) and help them learn new words!

Ultimately, the five-figure rule is a guideline for selecting books for children and it can be a good starting point for parents to encourage good reading habits in their child (Reading Eggs, 2017).

 

References

Reading Eggs. (2017, April 7). Five Finger Rule: Finding Just Right Books for Your Child. Readingeggs.com.au; Reading Eggs. https://readingeggs.com.au/articles/2017/04/07/just-right-books/

Scholastic. (2022, August 8).  The Five Finger Rule for Reading Will Help Your Child Find a ‘Just-Right’ Book. Scholastic.com; Scholastic. https://www.scholastic.com/parents/books-and-reading/raise-a-reader-blog/five-finger-rule.html

 

Drafted by: Keval, Szandra, Sharon, and Yi Ting

Edited by: Michelle and Phoebe

Reviewed by: Annabel and Joyce

Reading is a multisensory task that requires the integration of visual and audio stimuli, namely printed letters and speech sounds, respectively. According to the ‘Dual-Route Model of Reading’, reading can be achieved by either the lexical route or the sublexical route (Coltheart et al., 1993). The lexical route allows us to map a word’s orthographic structure (for instance a string of letters) onto its pronunciation directly, while the sublexical route allows us to pronounce words by breaking down the word’s structure into smaller sound units and putting them together (Joubert et al., 2004).

Using brain imaging techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), researchers have discovered that several areas in the left hemisphere of the brain make up the reading network (Raschle et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2018). These areas may be associated with different functions to help us read. The first area that helps us recognize letters and words is in the fusiform gyrus, also known as the visual word form area. The temporo-parietal area allows us to play with the sounds of words, and the middle temporal gyrus helps us understand the meanings of words. The inferior frontal gyrus, also known as Broca’s area, directs us to generate the sounds and meanings of words. Hence, a widespread network of brain areas is active as we read.

Through functional neuroimaging, research has also shown that the Dual-Route Model of Reading may be mapped to distinct brain areas to help us identify and read words (Roux et al., 2012). Reading via the sublexical “indirect” pathway engages the dorsal (top) areas of the brain, whereas reading via the lexical “direct” pathway involves the ventral (bottom) part of the brain (Jobard et al., 2003).

Figure 1. Dorsal and Ventral areas of the brain

In addition, research has shown that our brain uses different pathways when reading English words versus Chinese words. English is an alphabetic language, in which the sublexical pathway is used when reading regular words (e.g., brain, melt), while the lexical pathway helps us to read irregular words (e.g., pint, glove) (Wu & O’Brien, in press). In contrast, reading Chinese characters relies more on the lexical pathway as the pronunciation of a character is learnt through rote memorisation (Wu & O’Brien, in press). Overall, when reading English words, the pathway we use depends on the type of words we are reading, whereas when reading Chinese characters, we are mainly using the lexical pathway.

 

References

Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological review, 100(4), 589-608. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.589   

Jobard, G., Crivello, F., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2003). Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: a metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage, 20(2), 693-712. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00343-4

Joubert, S., Beauregard, M., Walter, N., Bourgouin, P., Beaudoin, G., Leroux, J., Karama, S., & Lecours, A. R. (2004). Neural correlates of lexical and sublexical processes in reading. Brain and language, 89(1), 9-20. https://doi.org.remotexs.ntu.edu.sg/10.1016/S0093-934X(03)00403-6

Smith, G. J., Booth, J. R., & McNorgan, C. (2018). Longitudinal Task-Related Functional Connectivity Changes Predict Reading Development. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 1754. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01754

Raschle, N. M. R., Borbás, R. B., King, C. K., & Gaab, N. G. (2020). The Magical Art of Magnetic Resonance Imaging to Study the Reading Brain. Frontiers for Young Minds. https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2020.00072 

Roux, F., Durand, J., Jucla, M., Réhault, E., Reddy, M., & Démonet, J. (2012). Segregation of lexical and sub-lexical reading processes in the left perisylvian cortex. PLoS one, 7(11), e50665. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050665

Wu, C.-Y., & O’Brien, B. A. (In press). Brain Signatures of Reading within Different Types of Learners and across Written Languages: Evidence and Implications for Education. In D. W. L. Hung, A. Jamaludin, & A. A. Rahman (Eds.), Applying the Science of Learning to Education: An Insight into the Mechanisms that Shape Learning. Singapore: Springer Nature.

Figure 1 – https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ventral-dorsal_streams.svg

 

Drafted by Claire & Kah Xuan

Edited by Phoebe, Michelle & Joyce

What is MRI? Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a safe and non-invasive scanning procedure that is commonly used for medical and research purposes. The MRI scanner is like a very motion-sensitive camera that can take pictures of our body, including our brain! MRI is unlike other neuroimaging techniques, such as X-rays and CT scans, that use radiation to obtain images of our body parts. Rather, it utilises magnets and radio waves to produce detailed pictures of brain structures, body organs and more (Hirsch, 2022). MRI is now one of the more commonly used tools that help neuroscientists study brain structures and functions.

How does MRI produce scanned images of our brain? To produce a high resolution 3-Dimensional (3D) image of the brain, the MRI scanner first obtains brain images in slices. It works like a camera, but instead of taking 2-Dimensional (2D) photos in pixels, the MRI scanner creates a 3D view of the brain in voxels (a tiny cube with edges of 1-3mm). The more voxels obtained and the smaller the voxel size is, the clearer and more detailed the 3D image can be. As MRI is very sensitive to motion, participants going into the MRI scanner play an important role in staying as still as possible while the MRI obtains images of brain slices to form a high-quality image. These high-resolution 3D images shed light on several aspects of brain structures such as their sizes and shapes.

Figure 1 – The importance of pixels and voxels in formation of clear and detailed images. (A) For the same object, large and small numbers of pixels give rise to high-resolution (left) and low-resolution (right) images, respectively. (B) The voxel is used to form 3D images, while the pixel is used for 2D.

What about functional MRI (fMRI)? Neurons in different areas of the brain are activated when individuals engage in different tasks. For example, researchers can ask participants to read a text or watch a video while they undergo an fMRI scan. When neurons in certain brain areas are activated, they consume energy and induce an influx of blood flow that carries oxygen in the nearby blood vessels. An fMRI scan detects changes in the oxygen level of blood flow in different areas of the brain. It can be used to identify the areas that are more actively working, thus aiding researchers in studying brain functions.

How is MRI used? MRI scanners have a plethora of uses in scientific and medical fields. For instance, scientists can study how different brain structures change in size and shape as a person ages. Medical professionals can also check for abnormalities in a patient’s brain to aid the diagnosis and planning of surgeries. Furthermore, fMRI scans also allow scientists to measure brain activity and study their specialised functions. Figure 2 shows an fMRI scan of a person’s brain while he/she is doing a task in the MRI scanner – the activated areas (highlighted in red) can be identified and mapped. Thus, MRI is and continues to be a powerful and important tool in studying the structures and functions of a human brain.

Figure 2 – An example fMRI scan showing brain activity (Tian, 2010). Brain areas that are relatively more active (highlighted in the images) during a functional MRI scan will be identified due to its higher Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent (BOLD) signal detected by the MRI scanner.

References

Hirsch, L. H. (2022, February). Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Brain (for Parents) – Nemours KidsHealth. KidsHealth. https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/mri-brain.html

Hoyos, P. M. H., Kim, N. Y. K., & Kastner, S. K. (2019, June 28). How Is Magnetic Resonance Imaging Used to Learn About the Brain? Frontiers for Young Minds. https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2019.00086

Tian, T. S. (2010). Functional Data Analysis in Brain Imaging Studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 1. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00035

Drafted by Claire & Kah Xuan

Edited by Michelle, Phoebe & Joyce

Reading is important for children’s language growth and development. In contrast to children who read less, children who are avid and frequent readers not only receive higher reading proficiency scores, but they also have greater opportunities for lifelong learning and good mental health (Sun et al., 2021). 

Given this, how can we motivate our children to read more and reap the benefits? According to a report by NIE (2021), it was found that children would be more motivated to read if they had (1) more time to read and (2) more enjoyment in reading. Furthermore, if the books were catered to their interests, they were more likely to engage in reading activities.  

In light of these findings, it is recommended for parents to set aside time for their children to read, in any language – perhaps 30 to 60 minutes on the weekend (or as appropriate). To foster enjoyment for reading, parents need to understand their child’s evolving preferences and look for books that their children might be interested in. In other words, parents also play a critical role in cultivating a child’s initial interest in reading. 

Beyond encouraging your child to read more, it is also useful to note that children prefer reading print material as compared to digital content (Sun et al., 2021). Some technological challenges that children face include unfamiliarity with online sites, desired books being unavailable online, and difficulty in gauging age-appropriate books online (Sun et al., 2021). As such, parents can source for physical books for their children and encourage them to visit the library or bookstore to increase their motivation to reading. 

 

Fig. 1: Parents reading with their children in a library in Singapore (Tan, n.d.). This is a good way of getting to know your child’s reading preferences and boosting enjoyment.

 

Reading capability can also affect a child’s reading frequency. One way to improve children’s reading capability, in any language, is to expand their vocabulary (Baumann, 2009). According to the National Reading Panel, vocabulary can be taught in a variety of ways including explicitly teaching new vocabulary as well as exposing the child to many new words (n.d.). For example, parents can encourage their children to read more in their Mother Tongue by engaging in vocabulary instruction in that language (Duke & Block, 2012). With an increased vocabulary, the child would be able to understand their reading material better, which can lead to increased interest in reading more books.  

 

Fig. 2: Components of vocabulary instruction (non-exhaustive) (IRIS Centre, n.d.).

 

Drafted by: Claire 

Edited by: Phoebe, Michelle, Joyce

 

References:

Baumann, J. F. (2009). Vocabulary and reading comprehension: The nexus of meaning. In S. E. Israel & G. G. Duffy (Eds.) Handbook of research on reading comprehension (pp. 323-346). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315759609

Duke, N. K., & Block, M. K. (2012). Improving reading in the primary grades. The Future of Children, 22(2), 55-72. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2012.0017

IRIS Centre. (n.d.). What should content-area teachers know about vocabulary instruction? https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/sec-rdng/cresource/q2/p02/

National Reading Panel (n.d.). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf

Sun, B., Loh, C E., & O’Brien, B. A. (2021). Report on the reading habits of bilingual children in Singapore 2021. National Institute of Education Singapore. https://www.nie.edu.sg/docs/default-source/oer/report-on-the-reading.pdf?sfvrsn=cbb06553_2

Tan, Y. J. (n.d.). Child-friendly libraries in Singapore. The New Age Parents. https://thenewageparents.com/child-friendly-libraries-singapore/

Bilingualism refers to the ability to speak or understand two languages. Singapore is a multilingual society with English, Mandarin, Malay, and Tamil being the main languages used. A child can become bilingual in multiple ways. For example, a child learns two languages when the child’s parents and caregivers switch between two languages frequently during daily interactions, thereby becoming bilingual. Another way is when the language spoken at home differs from the language spoken in school, the child picks up both languages and become bilingual (Walsh, 2015). Children enrolled in the Singapore education system become bilingual through different ways and learn to use two languages fluently.

Previous research has shown that bilingual children utilise cognitive resources beyond those needed for basic language learning when they switch between two languages (Walsh, 2015). For example, bilingual children have been observed to perform better than their monolingual counterparts in tasks that require executive function, which involves skills such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, attention control and reasoning (Bialystok et al., 2012).

Everyone’s bilingual status is dynamic–it changes over time. To understand how bilingualism develops, we explore aspects of the language environment such as the main language spoken at home, to recognise trends in children’s development. We also look into how the brain supports the development of these different languages. By conducting more bilingual studies, we are able to consider more variables that play key roles in an individual’s developmental trajectory. Additionally, we can also learn how language development can be better supported.

 

References

Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain. Trends in cognitive sciences, 16(4), 240-250.

Walsh, B. W. (2015, October 1). Bilingualism as a Life Experience. Harvard Graduate School of Education. https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/uk/15/10/bilingualism-life-experience#:%7E:text=Bilingualism%20and%20executive%20function&text=Recent%20research%20has%20shown%20that,reasoning%2C%20and%20flexible%20problem%20solving

 

Drafted by: Kah Xuan

Edited by: Phoebe, Michelle, Joyce, Prof Annabel