Science of Reading

Do you find it difficult to get your child excited about reading? You are not alone! In this post, we will explore an approach called ‘shared book reading’ that can help foster your child’s interest in reading.

Shared book reading is a well-established approach for supporting children’s early language development (Salley et al., 2022). This approach involves adults (e.g., parents) reading a book with the child while engaging them in discussion about the story. A structured method known as PEER (Zevenbergen & Whitehurst, 2003) is used to guide these discussions:

Now that you are familiar with the PEER method, let’s look at different ways you can prompt your child to encourage their engagement with the story:

Next time you read with your child, consider using the shared book reading PEER method along with the different types of prompts to make your reading session more interactive and engaging!

References

Salley, B., Daniels, D., Walker, C., & Fleming, K. (2022). Shared book reading intervention for parents of infants and toddlers. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 20(3), 322-340.

Zevenbergen, A. A., & Whitehurst, G. J. (2003). Dialogic reading: A shared picture book reading intervention for preschoolers. On reading books to children: Parents and teachers, 177, 200.

Watching children develop pre-writing skills such as learning to recognise alphabets, and using a crayon or pencil to draw or write for the first time is a proud milestone for parents and caregivers to see and be a part of. Some studies found that such skills are the initial foundation for an individual to be able to learn (Dove, Neuharth-Pritchett, Wright, & Wallinga, 2015; Senechal & LeFreve, 2002). Pre-writing skills are early literacy skills that start to develop after the age of one. These pre-writing skills include scribbling, copying lines and strokes, recognising and writing letters, and drawing shapes (e.g., circles, triangles and squares). Building such pre-writing skills can help children to develop their awareness of writing letters together to form words and writing their own names.  

Pre-writing skills develop around the age of three to four years old with letter recognition and the understanding that each letter of the alphabet represents a particular sound (Shrier, 2013). Researchers found that when parents and caregivers engage with their children over simple activities like forming letter shapes in the air and using lines to represent letters and words, these activities can be useful tools for parents to scaffold and aid their child’s learning of alphabet letter shaping, emergent writing, alphabet knowledge, letter-sound knowledge, and print motivation (i.e., a child’s interest in reading and in books) (Neuman & Neuman, 2009). 

How can we help to develop early literacy skills in children from a young age? 

There are many ways we can help develop literacy skills in our children from a young age. When developing pre-writing skills, fun fine-motor activities can be a part of our children’s routine and our interactions with them. Here are some ideas! 

Examples of activities for Pre-writing Skills
	Activity	What does it do?	How does it help?
	Drawing with thick markers or crayons	Build a palmar grasp	Practise scribbling and imitating vertical or horizontal lines
	Putting and removing clothes pegs in a colour matching activity or using spray bottles to spray water on to plants or for fun artwork	Build finger dexterity skills	Practise three finger hold for holding thin pencils, pens or colour pencils
	Using writing instruments to make vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines, and shapes like circles, crosses, squares and triangles	Build shape identification and letter identification skills	Practise imitating and copying of strokes that they can use to later print letters and words
	Hand-over-hand joint writing activities	Build print awareness skills	Practise writing uppercase and lowercase letters and learning to recognise and write own name and words

Key Takeaways:  

We can create many opportunities inside or outside the home environment to help our children develop the emergent writing skills. These activities can be embedded into daily routines to scaffold the development of their writing skills. 

1. Having paper and pens to write or draw on standby when outdoors  
2. Talking as you read then scribbling or drawing together during routines (e.g., before bedtime or after snack time)   
3. Discussing what you and your children saw during a day or what your child’s favourite colours or book characters are and making shapes or lines out of the discussion 

Through our conversations and interactions with our young ones in different environments using readily available resources and materials, learning for our children indeed becomes much more enriching and engaging.  

References: 

Dove, M. K., Neuharth-Pritchett, S., Wright, D. W., & Wallinga, C. (2015). Parental involvement routines and former Head Start children’s literacy outcomes. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 29(2), 173-186. 

Neuman, M. and Neuman, D. (2009). More than just storybooks: Promoting emergent literacy skills in the Home. Childhood Education, 85(4). 257-259.   

Senechal, M., & LeFevre, J. A. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children’s reading skill: A five‐year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73(2), 445-460 

Shrier, C. (November 2013). ABC’s of early literacy: The importance of developing early literacy skills. Retrieved from:  https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/abcs_of_early_literacy_the_importance_of_developing_ early_literacy_skills 

As parents, we all love talking to our children and even more so, hearing our children talk to us. Research shows that parent-child talk contributes to language ability in early childhood. Language ability is identified to be among the best predictors of school readiness and later school success (Hoff 2013, Burchinal et al. 2016). Language ability in early childhood is also influenced by exposure to language used by caregivers.

Why is parent-child talk important?

The parent-child talk relationship has received much attention especially since Hart and Risley’s (1995) important research, which estimated that, by the time children are 4 years old, those who face socioeconomic status (SES) challenges in their home environments possibly have heard 30 million words fewer than their more affluent peers. Preliminary evidence from the Thirty Million Words Initiative (Thirty Million Words Initiative) suggested that when parents talk to their children in daily life routines regularly, this increased the number of words and conversational turns children produced during parent-child interactions.

How can we categorise parent-child talk?

Research has suggested the following categories of parent-child talk that give children language learning opportunities as early as 2 years old:

1.Quantity of language input:

Number of words in a sentence, number of new words paired with gestures like pointing

2.Quality of language-based parent child interactions: 

Rhymes and songs during back-and-forth conversations, letter sounds, and word sounds that children can be exposed to during daily routines or outings

Opportunities to improve the quantity and quality of children’s language experiences are not restricted to any home or classroom contexts. A group of researchers (Ridge et al., 2015) took an innovative approach to spark parent–child conversations in supermarkets by putting up signs such as “What is your favourite vegetable?” and “Where does the milk come from?” They found that such measures and ideas can increase the quantity and quality of talk between parents/caregivers and children in both inside and outside home environments regardless of socioeconomic status. They also supported the language experiences for these families and building language abilities in their children.

Key takeaways:

How can we increase child language output in parent-child relationships regardless of socioeconomic status?

	Reading picture books or books with both words and pictures for children to engage in language and literacy learning opportunities such as receptive vocabulary, oral language skills, letter-word identification, and how letters are written and look like (Christian et al. 1998, Park 2008, Froiland et al. 2014).
	Utilising talking opportunities in daily life routines (mealtimes, shower times, grocery runs, bedtimes) regularly to increase the number of words and back and forth conversation turns produced during parent-child interactions (Pace, Luo, Hirsh-Pasek and Golinkoff,2017).
	Creating instances of language learning both inside and outside the home with parents/caregivers. Providing a variety of textured books and toys at home, visiting places like the zoo or the park, and discussing these experiences during walks or while waiting for the bus can all enhance language learning. Even a single trip to the public library has a significant impact on enriching children’s reading experiences.

Enriched language experiences can improve children’s overall readiness for school and build in them a love for their language, from a young age.

References

Burchinal, M., Foster, T. J., Bezdek, K. G., Bratsch-Hines, M., Blair, C., Vernon-Feagans, L., & Family Life Project Investigators. (2020). School-entry skills predicting school-age academic and social–emotional trajectories. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 67-80.

Christian, K., Morrison, F. J., & Bryant, F. B. (1998). Predicting kindergarten academic skills: Interactions among child care, maternal education, and family literacy environments. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13(3), 501-521.

Froiland, J. M., Powell, D. R., & Diamond, K. E. (2014). Relations among neighborhood social networks, home literacy environments, and children’s expressive vocabulary in suburban at-risk families. School Psychology International, 35(4), 429-444.

Hirsh-Pasek, K., Adamson, L. B., Bakeman, R., Owen, M. T., Golinkoff, R. M., Pace, A., Yust, K S P., & Suma, K. (2015). The contribution of early communication quality to low-income children’s language success. Psychological science, 26(7), 1071-1083.

Hart, B., & Risley, T. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Hoff, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influence: Socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development, 74, 1368–1378.

Pace, A., Luo, R., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2017). Identifying pathways between socioeconomic status and language development. Annual review of linguistics, 3(2017), 285-308.

Park, H. (2008). The varied educational effects of parent-child communication: A comparative study of fourteen countries. Comparative education review, 52(2), 219-243.

Ridge, K. E., Weisberg, D. S., Ilgaz, H., Hirsh‐Pasek, K. A., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2015). Supermarket speak: Increasing talk among low‐socioeconomic status families. Mind, Brain, and Education, 9(3), 127-135.

Why Read With Your Child?

1. Reading with your child aids in the development of literacy skills that form the foundation for successful reading in later years (Children’s Bureau , 2023). 
2. Moreover, through reading, your child can learn skills to better manage their emotions, and further develop their social skills (Schoppmann et al., 2023). 
3. Storytelling entails an immersive experience of fantasy and fiction, thus stimulating the child’s imaginative thinking (Niland, 2023). 
4. Reading is an excellent method in spending quality time with your child

Tips for reading with your child (Raising Children Network, 2023) 

1. Before Reading  
   1.  Have your child choose a book that they are interested in at the library or at the bookstore. 
   2. Ask questions about the book, e.g., “Why did you pick this book?”. 
2. During Reading 
   1. Make it fun – Vary your intonation and speed and adopt different voices and expressions depending on the character in the story. 
   2. Engage – Ask questions about the story and help them understand the characters’ perspectives. 
   3. Build connections between fiction and real-life – Draw parallels between the characters and observations in real-life situations, e.g., “We saw this bear in the zoo yesterday, didn’t we?” 
   4. Provide trivia information – Provide more information about the characters, like animals, or natural phenomena when applicable. 
3. After Reading  
   1. Reading-related activities – Consider other reading-related activities such as drawings or creating stories together. 
   2. Model good reading habits – Read more in front of your child to encourage them to read. 

References 

Children’s Bureau. (2023, May 11). Benefits & importance of reading to children: Children’s bureau. Child Abuse Prevention, Treatment & Welfare Services | Children’s Bureau. https://www.all4kids.org/news/blog/the-importance-of-reading-to-your-children/#:~:text=This%20is%20because%20reading%20to,language%2C%20literacy%20and%20social%20skills.  

Niland, A. (2023). Picture books, imagination and play: Pathways to positive reading identities for young children. Education Sciences, 13(5), 511. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13050511  

Reading with preschoolers. Raising Children Network. (2023, August 25). https://raisingchildren.net.au/preschoolers/play-learning/literacy-reading-stories/reading-with-preschoolers  

Schoppmann, J., Severin, F., Schneider, S., & Seehagen, S. (2023). The effect of picture book reading on young children’s use of an emotion regulation strategy. PLOS ONE, 18(8). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289403  

Written by: Serena

Edited by: Keval

Reviewed by: Annabel, Joyce, Tiffany

As parents, we all want our children to excel in school and develop a love for learning. However, children can sometimes encounter reading difficulties that may make this journey a bit more challenging. In this post, we will explore what reading difficulties are, their prevalence rates in Singapore, how these difficulties can impact your child’s learning in school and provide insights on how to support them effectively. 

What Are Reading Difficulties? 

Reading difficulties are challenges that children may face when learning to read. These difficulties can manifest in various ways and may affect a child’s ability to read, spell, and comprehend text.  

Types of Reading Difficulties:

1. Dyslexia: Dyslexia is perhaps the most well-known reading difficulty. It primarily affects a child’s ability to decode words accurately and fluently (Dyslexia Association of Singapore, 2019). Children with dyslexia often struggle with phonological awareness, which is the ability to recognize and manipulate the sounds in words. 
2. Dysgraphia: Dysgraphia is a writing-specific reading difficulty that affects a child’s handwriting and fine motor skills (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2023). This can make it challenging for children to express their thoughts on paper, which can hinder both reading and writing skills. 
3. Reading Comprehension Difficulties: Some children may have difficulty understanding and retaining what they read (Catts et al., 2016). This can lead to problems with comprehension and retention of information from textbooks and classroom lectures. 
4. Visual Processing Disorders: Visual processing difficulties can make it hard for a child to interpret and make sense of visual information, such as letters and words on a page (Slaghuis et al., 1996). This can significantly impact reading skills. 

Prevalence Rates in Singapore 

According to a 2017-18 annual report by the Dyslexia Association of Singapore, approximately 10% of the population in Singapore is estimated to have some form of learning difficulty (Dyslexia Association of Singapore, n.d.). This means that in a classroom of 30 students, it’s likely that at least three of them may face reading difficulties. While these figures provide an overview of the prevalence of reading difficulties, it’s essential to remember that each child is unique, and their challenges may vary. 

How Reading Difficulties Affect Your Child’s Learning 

Reading difficulties can have far-reaching consequences on your child’s academic journey and self-esteem (Boyes et al., 2018; Hamilton & Glascoe, 2006): 

1. Academic Struggles: Reading difficulties do not only affect learning in language subjects, children with reading difficulties may also perform below their potential in various subjects that require reading, such as mathematics, science and social studies. 
2. Low Self-Esteem: Repeated struggles with reading can erode a child’s self-confidence and self-esteem, making them feel inadequate or different from their peers. 
3. Frustration and Anxiety: Reading difficulties can lead to frustration and anxiety in school, as children may face challenges in keeping up with assignments and tests. 
4. Avoidance of Reading: To avoid embarrassment or frustration, some children may avoid reading altogether, which can hinder their overall learning experience. 

Supporting Your Child 

It is important to note that reading difficulties are not indicative of a child’s overall intelligence, and most children can overcome them with the right support. As parents, there are several ways you can support your child with reading difficulties (Horowitz-Kraus et al., 2014): 

1. Early Intervention: Recognize the signs of reading difficulties early and seek help from teachers, specialists, or educational psychologists. 
2. Tailored Learning Plans: Work with educators to create personalized learning plans that accommodate your child’s specific needs. 
3. Encourage Reading: Foster a love for reading by providing access to age-appropriate books that cater to your child’s interests. 
4. Patience and Support: Be patient and empathetic, providing emotional support to help your child navigate their challenges. 
5. Advocacy: Advocate for your child’s needs within the school system to ensure they receive the necessary accommodations and support. 

Conclusion 

Reading difficulties are common, and many children in Singapore and around the world face them. Understanding the types of reading difficulties, their prevalence rates, and the potential impact on your child’s learning is the first step towards providing effective support. With early intervention, personalized learning plans, and a nurturing environment, you can empower your child to overcome these challenges and thrive academically and personally. Remember, every child has unique strengths, and with the right support, they can achieve their full potential. 

References 

Boyes, M. E., Tebbutt, B., Preece, K. A., & Badcock, N. A. (2018). Relationships between reading ability and child mental health: Moderating effects of self‐esteem. Australian Psychologist, 53(2), 125-133. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12281  

Catts, H. W., Nielsen, D. C., Bridges, M. S., & Liu, Y. S. (2016). Early identification of reading comprehension difficulties. Journal of learning disabilities, 49(5), 451-465. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0022219414556121 

Dyslexia Association Singapore. (n.d.). HELPING DYSLEXIC PEOPLE ACHIEVE. https://www.dasacademy.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/AnnualReport2017_2018.pdf.  

Dyslexia Association of Singapore. (2019, March 21). WHAT IS DYSLEXIA? https://www.das.org.sg/about-dyslexia/what-is-dyslexia/what-is-dyslexia.html 

Hamilton, S. S., & Glascoe, F. P. (2006). Evaluation of children with reading difficulties. American Family Physician, 74(12), 2079-2086. 

Horowitz‐Kraus, T., Vannest, J. J., Kadis, D., Cicchino, N., Wang, Y. Y., & Holland, S. K. (2014). Reading acceleration training changes brain circuitry in children with reading difficulties. Brain and Behavior, 4(6), 886-902. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.281 

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. (2023, January 20). Dysgraphia. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/dysgraphia#:~:text=What%20is%20dysgraphia%3F,are%20first%20introduced%20to%20writing. 

Slaghuis, W. L., A.J. Twell, & Kingston, K. (1996). Visual and language processing disorders are concurrent in Dyslexia and continue into adulthood. Cortex, 32(3), 413–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-9452(96)80002-5 

Written by: Keval

Edited by: Michelle and Phoebe

Reviewed by: Joyce