Alcohol was not always just seen as a beverage. In fact, alcohol (or in this case, the term “wine” is used) was conferred a special position. Within rituals offerings, alcohol was “used to invite the blessings of the royal ancestors, and to pray for rain or good harvest from the gods”. Similarly, while offerings such as meat, were commonly referred to as “liao” or burnt offerings, only offerings of “wine” were designated as “offering”, or “tien”, implying that the “wine” occupied a central role in the rituals. Even in last week’s exercise with the tombs, we see bronze cups dedicated for alcohol. As a passage from the Rites of Zhou writes:
In a proper offering, five ch’i’s and three wines should be prepared to fill eight tsun- jars. Use six tsun-jars for the great sacrifice, four tsun-jars for the medium sacrifice, and two tsun-jars for the small sacrifice, all with set number of drinks.1
This here outlines the importance of alcohol within these ceremonies. Outside of the religious realm, the secular realm also held alcohol in high regard. Here, in the Liji or Book of Rites, is this passage about wine-drinking:
The host and the guest salute each other three times. When they reach the steps, they concede to each other three times. Then the host ascends. The guest also ascends. The host stands under the lintel, faces north and salutes twice. The guest ascends from the west of the steps, stands under the lintel, faced north and returns the salutation. The host sits down and takes the chü-eh-cup from the tray and descends to wash. The guest follows the host. The host sits down again and pronounces his words of courtesy, and the guest replies.2
This implies the use of alcohol to help with the celebration of friendship and symbolized the amity between participants. It also meant that wine-drinking took on a special status as a tool for social interactions, and not so much a form of indulgence (unlike today).3
And in other parts of the world, like Iron Age France and Pre-Hispanic Peru, societies would revolve around alcohol. In Peru, men would specialise in making chicha as a means of economic activity; some even depending on the chicha trade to obtain their livelihoods.4 In France, drinking was seen as a political tool: alcohol were frequently dispensed to assure the support of a lord’s warriors, and also as a tool of trade and symbol of power (the more one could accrue, the stronger he was perceived to be because he could control the farms that produced the grains required)5. It is hard to pinpoint the influence of alcohol on Ancient China’s society, but no doubt it was an important commodity to the Chinese.
But of course, This is a presentation about Barley, and Barley was not just meant to create alcohol. In ancient Chinese Odes, Grain were referred to as lai, meant as a radical or root word for the “come”. One speculation for this was because men of ancient China did not know where these “grains” came from, and hence regarded these food as “Coming from God”, hence its name. This leads us back to the Mythology of Shennong which was briefly touched upon at the start of the presentation.6
But contrary to myth, as it always is, barley has been traced to originate from the Fertile Crescent: a vast swathe of fertile land in Europe/middle east. This was believed to be where barley was first domesticated, as early as 6500BC, by civilisations as a form of agricultural food. And a mutation in Barley, which resulted in six rows of barley seeds on one stalk, further increased the “attraction” of the barley grain which “seduced” humans to further domesticate and cultivate the crop.7
Tracing Barley’s origins to the Fertile Crescent could also explain why it was so popular with the Chinese and Tibetans. This diagram shows the travel of barley across Eurasia – from the middle east all the way the Tibetan plateaus and East China. This speaks volume as it meant that Chinese civilisation recognised the unique traits of the Barley – that is, its adaptability to weather. As you can see, the timeline shows the Chinese acknowledging and utilizing this trait of Barley even in the harsh climates of the Northern China and the Tibetan plateau.8
The second diagram shows two genes of Barley, one Haplotype A and B; A having a photoperiod responsive gene and B being absent with this gene. Basically, plants with a photoperiod responsive gene that allows them to tell day from night. It allows plants to take advantage of periods with sunlight to increase photosynthesis. However, these two variants of Barley are also from the same variant – that they take longer flower. This diagram shows how a variant of Barley, one that takes longer to flower, is frequently used in northern altitudes. This meant two things: one, that the Barley did not require as much sunlight to grow, and two, that it was flexible in the sense that Barley could be planted and harvest in any season. This flexibility in addition to the adaptability of Barley allowed farmers to stagger their harvesting timings and achieve a risk-averse strategy to ensure constant food supply.9
And lastly, what makes barley interesting is the extensive usage of this grain in the past – Barley was extremely versatile. Barley were generally grouped into hulled and naked variants. Naked variants, while harder to grow, had their husks thin and easily removed – making it easily processed into food. The hulled variants on the other hand, were harder to process but were higher in protein, making it the preferred choice for fermentation and animal feed.10 And barley was also perceived to have medicinal benefits – in TCM, they were an excellent choice to combat diabetes, perceived to cool the body, strengthen the digestive system and detoxify the body.11
It is difficult to picture such a society now because of how wheat has overtaken as the primary grain and staple food. One of the reasons for this was the preference for white fluffier bread by the affluent; as irrigation systems advanced and new agricultural technologies were developed, wheat could be more easily cultured and grown – which ultimately led to barley losing its popularity and being associated with the poor. Yet even in today’s world, Barley still plays an integral role in certain societies – for example, Barley is still a key ingredient and a staple food in Tibetan cuisine because of its resistance to cold temperatures, and how other crops are unable to grow in such harsh climates. Therefore, it is difficult to dismiss the impact Barley has had on the world, and on Ancient China herself.12
References:
1 Poo Mu-Choo. The Use and Abuse of Wine in Ancient China. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 42, No. 2 (1999): pp. 134 – 138. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3632333.
2 Poo Mu-Choo. The Use and Abuse of Wine in Ancient China. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 42, No. 2 (1999): pp. 134 – 138. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3632333.
3 Poo Mu-Choo. The Use and Abuse of Wine in Ancient China. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 42, No. 2 (1999): pp. 134 – 138. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3632333.
4 Moore, Jerry D. Pre-Hispanic Beer in Coastal Peru: Technology and Social Context of Prehistoric Production, in American Anthropologist, New Series. Vol. 91, No. 3 (1989): pp. 688 – 691. http://www.jstor.org/stable/680873.
5 Dietler, Michael. Driven by Drink: The Role of Drinking in the Political Economy and the Case of Early Iron Age France, in Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. Vol 9(4), (1990): pp. 370 – 372. DOI: 10.1016/0278-4165(90)90011-2
6 Ho Ping-Ti. The Loess and the Origin of Chinese Agriculture. The American Historical Review, Vol. 75, No. 1 (1969): pp. 26. DOI: 10.2307/1841914
7 Sprangler, Robert N. Fruit of the Sands: The Silk Road Origins of the Foods We Eat. Oakland, California: University of California Press, pp. 116-117 DOI: 10.2307/j.ctvh1dx4s.
8 Liu X, Lister DL, Zhao Z, Petrie CA, Zeng X, Jones PJ, et al. Journey to the east: Diverse routes and variable flowering times for wheat and barley en route to prehistoric China. PLoS ONE 12(11) (2017): e0187405, pp. 7. https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0187405.
9 Liu X, Lister DL, Zhao Z, Petrie CA, Zeng X, Jones PJ, et al. Journey to the east: Diverse routes and variable flowering times for wheat and barley en route to prehistoric China. PLoS ONE 12(11) (2017): e0187405, pp. 12. https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pone.0187405.
10 Sprangler, Robert N. Fruit of the Sands: The Silk Road Origins of the Foods We Eat. Oakland, California: University of California Press, pp. 116 – 117. DOI: 10.2307/j.ctvh1dx4s.
11 Dr. Mao. “Barley”. Ask Dr. Mao, http://www.askdrmao.com/natural-health-dictionary/barley/ (Accessed 3rd September 2019)
12 Sprangler, Robert N. Fruit of the Sands: The Silk Road Origins of the Foods We Eat. Oakland, California: University of California Press, pp. 138 – 139. DOI: 10.2307/j.ctvh1dx4s.
13 Tsingtao Beer, https://www.coopathome.ch/en/supermarket/drinks/beer/blonde-lager/bottles/tsingtao-beer/p/3051518
14 Mu-Choo Poo, The Use and Abuse of Wine in Ancient China, in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 42, (1999), pp. 128
15Unknown, Libation cup of the “chueh” type, from a tomb, in Science Museum Group. https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co124107/libation-cup-of-the-chueh-type-from-a-tomb-libation-cup (Accessed 2 Sept 2019)
16Caleb Strom, Shennong: The God-King of Chinese Medicine and Agriculture, in Ancient Origins. https://www.ancient-origins.net/myths-legends/shennong-god-king-chinese-medicine-and-agriculture-007760 (Accessed 2 Sept 2019)
17Picture of 2 row and 6 row barley: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley#Two-row_and_six-row_barley (Accessed 2 Sept 2019)
18Liu X, Lister DL, Zhao Z, Petrie CA, Zeng X, Jones PJ, et al., Journey to the east: Diverse routes and variable flowering times for wheat and barley en route to prehistoric China, in PLoS ONE 12(11) (2017), pp. 7
19Liu X, Lister DL, Zhao Z, Petrie CA, Zeng X, Jones PJ, et al., Journey to the east: Diverse routes and variable flowering times for wheat and barley en route to prehistoric China, in PLoS ONE 12(11) (2017), pp. 12
20Unknown, Hulled vs. Hull-less Barley, in Fanatic Cook. https://fanaticcook.com/2014/02/12/hulled-vs-hull-less-barley/ (Accessed 2 Sept 2019)